Theory within education is the ideological voice to help determine the practices within the classroom just as the idea of a utopian society should guide the actions of its members. From pre-school through higher education, teaching methods lend themselves to the enhancement of content areas. Yet, these techniques should be weighed for their unique strengths and weaknesses as they contribute to student understanding. Their implementation in education should be carefully evaluated when determining how to best meet the needs of each student. The connection of these techniques to content and student learning styles characterizes a good educator, such as constructivism, scaffolding, metacognition and the social family.
Constructivism is the learning process where “knowledge is unique to the individual who constructs it” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p 456) through acquisition and manipulation into existing schemas within the learner’s mind. Individual knowledge is a result of a learning process requiring an active participation by the learner as information is assimilated with the “goal to promote critical literacy” (Cummins, Brown, & Sayers, 2007, p 45). There are two central themes to constructivism.
- First, the learner will construct their own knowledge.
- Second, all social interactions are important to the construction process (Woolfolk, 2010).
Teachers who base their instruction on the foundation of the constructivist learning theory continually apply student-centered learning. Students are encouraged to use their knowledge in a variety of contexts that will especially direct them toward higher cognitive processes. Five conditions of learning used by constructivist are:
- First, all learning is integrated into complex, relevant and realistic environments.
- Second, learning provides social negotiation and shared responsibility within the community.
- Third, content will be demonstrated and taught through multiple means and representations.
- Fourth, instructors will nurture self-awareness within the student.
- Fifth, instructors will encourage learners to accept responsibility and ownership in regards to their learning (Driscoll, 2005).
Within the constructivist theory, a popular method of application used by instructors is problem-based learning. Although there is little distinction between different active participation models of learning and most of these models share similar attributes, problem based learning is unique through the introduction of a complex, real world problem with the purpose to develop useful knowledge in a learner versus inert knowledge which is memorized and seldom used. Whereas the scientific method originated from science, this method grew from medicinal research. It includes six steps including the challenge which is the introduction of the question or query, brainstorming or generating ideas, research and gathering of information, getting feedback from peers and other authorities, and finishing with the presentation of conclusions (White, 2013).
The application of this method has a wide variety of options. One classroom teacher applied this method to the Alaskan oil spill in her third grade classroom. She first introduced the problem during a current affairs instructional period by reading newspaper articles about the oil spill and its results on nature. Her students gathered more information through maps, encyclopedias and library books to learn about the Alaskan ecosystem and the effect of the oil on it. Students brainstormed how the spill may have been prevented. One student offered an additional thought that they could participate in the clean up efforts. Students collected donations of towels and finances to contribute to the clean up effort. Throughout this process, the teacher also integrated reading, writing, spelling, social studies and science. Students learned how to reduce pollution in local waterways. The end result fostered students’ resolution of a real world problem (Woolfolk, 2010).
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Constructivism encourages students to take charge of their learning and helps to mold them into capable adults who can efficiently solve the dilemmas within the world as well as strongly supporting literacy skills. “It emphasizes critical thinking skills, understanding, learning how to learn, and working cooperatively with others” (White, 2013). This theory, born from cognitivism, enhances intrinsic motivation and skills through self-directed lifelong learning.
Another effective teaching method is the use of differentiated learning which creates a bridge between constructivism to scaffolding. Differentiated instruction is “a way for teachers to recognize and react responsively to their students’ varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning and interests” (Thousand, Villa & Nevin, 2007, p 2). Teachers systematically, methodically and intentionally discover characteristics about their students and mold lessons around these characteristics through planning. Through the use of differentiated instruction, students’ individual learning needs can be met.
Liftig (2010) introduces differentiated learning as a concept which has been around for decades but has recently received more attention. This academic approach to teaching and learning requires dedication from the teachers in analyzing students’ needs, strengths, prior knowledge and even their attitudes towards topics and learning in general. At times, the application of differentiated learning may require teachers to get help from others in order to implement it effectively. It is the process by which learning strategies and activities are designed and executed to generate mastery level outcomes in every student through scaffolding, pacing, monitoring, assessing and adjusting instruction.
As students begin a learning sequence, a K-W-L chart will be introduced where each student will brainstorm what they already know about the topic, what they want to know and a reflection process completes the K-W-L chart. Scaffolding can also be increased through discussion groups to compare and contrast similarities and differences on their charts. Also during the compare/contrast reflection, graphic organizers will highlight similarities and differences. As the discussion progresses, learning journals can be utilized to record observations.
Such practices help students to understand the executive process possessed within learning, namely metacognitive skills. Metacognition “is used to regulate thinking and learning. There are three essential skills that allow us to do this: planning, monitoring and evaluating” (Woolfolk, 2010, p. 270). Planning consists of the strategies in order to approach the learning task. Monitoring steers the learner as learning progress is consistently determined. Lastly, evaluation is the process by which the learner measures their current standing to their learning goal.
Within the realm of metacognition, learning strategies are introduced to students to encourage an understanding of methodologies which match their specific learning style. One example of different learning styles was developed by Howard Gardner. Gardner (2006) investigated the cognitive differences within intelligence which makes each individual unique. He proposed that there was more than simply an intelligence but a variety of intelligences. Eight intelligences were identified in his earlier works including verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, visual/spacial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009). Later, Gardner offered a ninth intelligence of existentialist (Cortland, 2012). Through the understanding of multiple intelligences, instructors can “highlight the importance of the individual student” (Gardner, 2006, p 51). As students feel their value and worth through the molding of lessons, they will have more success and greater desire to continue on to be successful students and hopefully develop into lifelong learners (Gregory & Chapman, 2007).
Based on Gardner’s work of multiple intelligences, cognitive theorists investigated the probability that people had different “ways of thinking and learning methods” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009, p. 127). The University of South Dakota proposes that there are three main learning styles. These fall into verbal, tactile and auditory. However, other theorists believe there are more than three styles which fall into two main categories of social learners and solitary learners. Based on these two foundational categories, seven learning styles emerge: visual (spatial), aural (auditory), verbal (linguistic), physical (kinesthetic), logical (mathematical), social (interpersonal) and solitary (intrapersonal) (Anonymous, 2012).
Preferred learning styles assist the individual in how they learn. They alter experiences, identify the method with which information is retrieved and even can change chosen words. Preferred styles guide the way students learn. They also change the way experiences are internally represented and the way information is recalled. These styles can even be recognized through chose vocabulary. “Research shows us that each learning style uses different parts of the brain. By involving more of the brain during learning, we remember more of what we learn. Researchers using brain-imaging technologies have been able to find out the key areas of the brain responsible for each learning style” (ibid., para. 12).
Another cognitive learning theory is the Honey-Mumford model which is founded on four specific styles namely activists, reflectors, theorists and pragmatists. Each type possesses unique characteristics which when understood can enhance the learning experience. Activists particularly enjoy learning by doing. They are experiential learners who will try anything, prefer to work in groups and generally require little to no planning. Reflectors are more reserved than the activists as they prefer to be data collectors and observers. This style will be slower to decide. The theorist may also be slow to decide as they need to be well-organized and tidy. They are especially methodical and logical as they adapt new information into old frameworks. Lastly, pragmatists are the practical applicators. They seek out problem solving opportunities to utilize new information (Pritchard, 2009).
There are many other applications of teaching theories including the implications of the social family within the classroom. Most popular within this realm is the use of the collaborative learning. Creating a collaborative learning environment changes the role of the teacher from information giver to director or guide (Barell, 2010). Instructors can nurture students’ desire to learn and as a result their efficacy or their power to achieve a goal.
Collaborative learning is an effective teaching and learning technique which has been used to enhance mutual responsibility between learners. While working within groups, students learn additional skills beyond the course content. They develop interpersonal skills such as compassion, patience and are even noted to be less critical of others. Additionally, research affirms students have a capability to learn the same information in a shorter amount of time and with greater efficiency while also pushing students toward higher order thinking skills. This method cultivates an active learning environment as it fosters positive interdependence between group members. Other noted benefits of this method include the development of social skills, communication skills, leadership skills and conflict management skills. It can also be successfully used in both online and on-campus environments with a little creativity from instructors (Anonymous, 2012; Klobas & Renzi, 2005; Tejada, 2010; Palmer, Peters & Streetman, 2006).
Collaborative learning, cooperative learning and group work are often used as synonyms within education using similar approaches. During collaborative learning, students have a greater awareness of a combination of social skills and cognitive skills needed in conjunction for successful learning opportunities. Such collaborative learning methods consists of grouping, differentiated instruction, brainstorming, clustering and group discussions.
Although a knowledge of the learning theories is important for instructors, the essential nature of education is that students must apply what they have learned in real world applications. Education cannot be merely a transfer of information but must be aimed at an active use. Understanding is the ability to call back information and demonstrate the skill when needed whether if is in the classroom or another application. However, rote knowledge is foundational, the information must be increased and developed to support problem solving applications. The challenge for educators is determining an adequate absorption of material in order to use it in the correct situations.
References
Anonymous. (2012). Overview of learning styles. Retrieved July 17, 2012 from www.learning-styles-online.com/overview/
Barell, J. (2010). Critical Issue: Working Toward Student Self-Direction and Personal Efficacy as Educational Goals. Retrieved from The Learning Point Associates Website: www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/learning/lr200.htm
Cortland: State University of New York College at Cortland. (2012). Multiple intelligences: Howard Gardner. Retrieved July 17, 2012 from web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/MI%20Theory.htm
Cummin, J., Brown, K., & Sayers, D. (2007). Literacy, technology, and diversity: Teaching for success in changing times. San Francisco: Allyn & Bacon.
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction. (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences. New York, New York: Basic Books.
Gregory, G. & Chapman, C. (2007). Differentiated instructional strategies: One size doesn’t fit all. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Klobas, J. & Renzi, P. (2005). Evaluation of the efficacy of collaborative learning in face to face and computer supported universities. Computers in Human Behavior, (22)2, 163-176.
Lever-Duffy, J. & McDonald, J. (2008). Teaching and learning with technology (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Allyn & Bacon.
Liftig, I. (2010). Differentiated instruction to the rescue. Science Scope, 33(6), 36-42.
Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2009). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues. Allyn & Bacon.
Palmer, G., Peters, R. & Streetman, R. (2013). Cooperative learning. Retrieved January 21, 2013 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Cooperative_Learning
Pritchard, A. (2009). Ways of learning: Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom (2nd ed.). New York, NY:Routledge.
Tejada, C. (2002). Research on cooperative learning. Retrieved January 24, 2013 from http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~eg9306/candy%20research.htm
Thousand, J., Villa, R. & Nevin, A. (2007). Differentiating instruction: Collaboratively planning and teaching for universally designed learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
White, H. B. (2013). Dan tries problem based learning, a case study. [Online]. Retrieved January 27, 2013 from www.udel.edu/pbl/dancase3.html
Woolfolk, A. (2010). Educational Psychology (11th Edition). Needham Heights, Massachusetts. Allyn & Bacon.
By Tracy Atkinson
Tracy Atkinson, mother of six, lives in the Midwest with her husband. She is a teacher, having taught elementary school to higher education, holding degrees in elementary education and a master’s in higher education. Her passion is researching, studying and investigating the attributes related to self-directed learners. She has published several titles, including Calais: The Annals of the Hidden, Lemosa: The Annals of the Hidden, Book Two, Rachel’s 8 and Securing Your Tent. She is currently working on a non-fiction text exploring the attributes of self-directed learners: The Five Characteristics of Self-directed Learners.
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